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Data & Notes

Original Publishing: 1955 • Australian House and Garden Practical Planning Series No. 5 • Plans for your Dream Home

Ken G. Murray – Publisher • Beryl Guertner – Editor • Merton Jones – Art Supervision • Mary Simpson – Production

Written originally in British English, the text has been transcribed largely untouched, except for minor grammar corrections. Most spelling differences have been left (colour vs color, localised vs localized, etc). Advertisements have not been included, along with sections at the author’s discretion. Written in 1955, keep in mind times and technology have changed.

Introduction

This is a book of ideas – ideas that will help you plan and build your own home. Thousands of couples will either build a home this year or plan one for the future. This book is published to give every one of them good advice, imaginative ideas, and at least one plan under 12 squares that is really their dream house.

When you plan a house, you need the help of a reputable architect. You need his careful consideration for detail and design, his experience in building. This book supplies your need, for all these home plans are drawn up by well-known architects who have found that designing minimum houses can be a challenging and absorbing project.

You can take any one of these designs along to (a) builder or architect to show him the house you want. Or write to the architect of the plan you like or to the Editor – we are here to help you.

Our architects have designed small but not cramped family homes. They have given close attention to putting space where it is most useful. The results show spacious living rooms, kitchens that are efficient workrooms and bathrooms which are large enough to avoid family traffic jams. Newly-marrieds, young families, families where the children have grown up, all have an interest in this book of ideas.

If you want to work out the approximate cost of a particular house, here’s how to do it. The average price per square (100 square feet) for a timber house is £320; for brick, £380; for asbestos cement, £300. Determine how many squares the plan is (it’s plainly stated for each plan) and multiply it by these average costs. For example, a 10-square timber house would cost around £3,200. Quotations vary from builder to builder, from district to district, but this system will give you a rough guide.

There’s more to a house than choosing a plan. If you know some of the fundamentals of home building, you can save yourself time, worry and money. So included in this plan book are features on foundation work, white ant proofing, lighting and roofing.

Whatever your taste in houses, whether you have the money to build or are saving at this moment, if you are a prospective homeowner, here is a book you should read.

Beryl Guertner (Editor)

What You Should Know About Foundations

Few jobs are tackled by laymen as frequently and as confidently as building what is commonly termed the foundations. Actually the foundations are the rock or soil formations on which the building is resting. The lowest part of the walls which transfers the weight of the building to the foundations is called a footing. Although the actual work– apart from setting out– does not require much skill, it is most important that this job should be properly understood because a mistake occurring at this stage is almost impossible to correct later on. The consequences of unsatisfactory foundations and footings are, of course, structural cracks which may range from merely unsightly cracks in the plastering to dangerous weaknesses in the structure.

Generally speaking foundations can be one of three types: rock, sand and gravel, clay.

Rock foundations present the least difficulties. The rock surface has to be scrabbled (chipped) to a true level surface or, where this is simpler to do, it may in parts be built up with concrete to a level surface. This concrete should be no less than two inches thick at any point. The brickwork may then be started with a course 13 ½” wide under external walls and 9” wide under partition walls.

Not everyone is fortunate enough to have rock foundations either at the surface or at a level to which he can dig down. Sand and gravel are hard, gritty materials (the difference between the two is the size of the particle) that have no cohesion, or in other words, do not stick together like clay particles. For this material it is necessary to dig trenches down to a depth of twelve or eighteen inches. In N.S.W. Building regulations required the width of footings to be twice the thickness of walls above, that is 22” for 11” cavity walls and 9” for 4 ½” walls and the height to be 9”. For practical reasons footings under 4 ½” walls are frequently wider than this.

Commonly these footings are built in reinforced concrete. The concrete is mixed to the proportion of one part of Portland cement to two parts of sand to four parts of blue metal or other suitable aggregate. The concrete must be reinforced with four or six ⅜” diameter steel rods which must be placed in two layers, one 2” down from the top and one 2” up from the bottom of the footing. This 2” concrete cover is designed to protect the steel from rusting, hence the same distance must be kept at the sides also. Where the foot is stepped (which it must be unless the ground is level) the steel rods should be bent to a slope of one in six or lapped 2 to 3 feet. The steel rods are kept in position by so-called ligatures, ¼” diameter rods which are bent to something like a U-shape and spaced approximately two feet. Black wire is used to tie the rods to the ligatures.

These footings are designed to carry the weight of the walls above. If, instead of a wall, a large door or window occurs it is quite conceivable that the footings bends upwards. Cracks will then show next to the opening. To avoid this danger ½” diameter rods are placed on top of the footing under all large openings. These rods are additional to the ones mentioned before and are also placed two inches away from the edge of the concrete.

Brick or stones may be used for footings instead of concrete. Brickwork should be started with two courses 23” wide and stepped up with two 18” and two 13 ½” courses to the 11” wall. All brickwork below ground level should be built on cement mortar, that is mortar mixed (from) one part of cement to three parts of sand with one tenth part of lime added because it makes the mortar more workable.

In Sydney it is common to use bush sand which already contains a proportion of lime and no lime is added when this is used.

Where local stone is available it may be preferred to use it for work up to floor level. Stones should be roughly squared, laid on their natural bed and needed in cement mortar. On good ground for single-storey construction 18” stonework is sufficient. Under special conditions walls up to 24” wide may have to be used.

Most difficulties and failures are experienced on clay foundations, particularly when floaters– large loose stones– occur in the clay. Clay expands considerably when it is wet and shrinks in its dry stage. Everyone has seen the large cracks that open up in clay soils during dry weather. Drying and wetting of the ground in different seasons causes considerable movement of the foundations, the result of which is cracking in the structure above.

If one corner of a house rests on a floater and the remainder on clay this danger is increased. A difficulty sometimes encountered on rocky land is that what appears as solid rock may turn out to be a floater resting on a layer of clay. In spite of all the extra hard work involved these floaters should be removed. If the floater cannot be removed altogether it is sometimes sufficient to “break its back”, by blasting a few shots in it.

Generally the safest course with clay foundations is to dig down to a level so deep down that the ground is no longer affected by seasonal changes of moisture. But this is not always possible because in some cases this level may be as much as 15 feet down. Such difficulties are encountered particularly in the Adelaide area, to a lesser degree in Sydney’s North Shore area and some of the Western Suburbs. Special types of footings have been designed for such situations where the normal strip footing is not applicable. They include inverted Tee shapes, deep beam and pier and beam footings. In the last-named piers are sunk down to a level of shale or bedrock and beams above ground level carry the weight of the walls above these piers. This, however, is an expert’s job and where the ground appears difficult and treacherous the wisest course of action is to get an experienced engineer or architect’s advice.

Footings and foundation walls carry the weight of the walls and the roof. Most of the floor load is taken by piers which should be no further apart than 6 ft from centre to centre. In Victoria red gum stumps are quite common for this purpose, while in N.S.W. 9” by 9” brick piers are mostly used.

An important item, however that cannot be omitted is the damp-proof course. This course is built into the walls to prevent the moisture in the ground from traveling upwards through the walls. Lead is the ideal material for the purpose, but many other materials may be used. Aluminum is becoming quite common in N.S.W. and waterproof mortars of a proprietary make are often used in Victoria. IF metal is used a strip of material is laid on each skin of the cavity wall below the level of the floor timbers and below and just above the level of a concrete slab. The cavity starts at least two courses below the damp-proof course. During bricklaying mortar drops down into the cavity. If this mortar remains lying above the damp course, moisture will penetrate through the mortar into the house. If it is allowed to drop down below the damp course no harm can be done. An added precaution is to leave weep holes– vertical joints without mortar– at the bottom of the external skin to allow any water to run out.

One other little point is worth remembering: Conscious of the dangers inherent (in) some foundation conditions local councils and many lending organisations require to be notified after the trenches have been dug. If the inspector has not arrived within 48 hours work on the foundations may proceed and trenches may be filled in.

What You Should Know About Roofing

No building is so dependent on a single factor for its appearance as on the type of roof used. Indeed we almost identify architectural styles by roof shapes such as the steep gabled roof being Tudor or the flat roof, modern. This, like most generalisations, is inaccurate. But nevertheless it is the roof shape that gives a house its characteristic appearance.

Originally these shapes evolved from construction methods and available materials, but in time the procedure has become reversed; the roof shape is chosen for other reasons, mostly aesthetic, and materials and construction methods are found to fit this preconception.

However, the roof has other and more important functions to fulfill: it is the main surface exposed to the weather and shelters the house from heat and cold, from snow and rain. Waterproofing is, then, one of the main considerations when designing a roof and all its details and some measure of insulation is another one.

Roof shapes like many other features have been simplified in contemporary buildings. No longer is a house considered undignified unless it has innumerable gables, hips, valleys and dormers at various levels. This desire for plain geometric shapes may have led the early contemporary designers to use the flat roof so extensively and without considering other aspects.

Moreover, the flat roof is by no means flat, but is just any roof of low pitch hidden behind parapet walls. This type of construction presents particular problems in waterproofing, which have done much to discredit it.

But before considering this type of roof any further, let us see what other shapes there are.

All over the world and over a period of centuries the gable roof can be found as a simple solution to covering the small house. The ridge runs parallel to two (usually two long) walls and two inclined surfaces produce the triangular gable shape where they intersect the end walls.

The name, gable roof, refers to the shape, not as some people think to the pitch, and a gable roof can be as low-pitched as its covering material will permit.

In the hipped roof, the end surfaces are not vertical as the gables but inclined at the same pitch as the two main areas and the eaves line continues around the whole house. In special cases all roof surfaces come to a point over the centre of a square house, but more commonly a longer or shorter ridge runs parallel to the long walls. The hip roof is of advantage where water collection is a problem because all the roof water can be collected at one point.

Where the plan shape is anything but a plain rectangle a combination of hips and valleys and/or gables is needed and this is what produces the effect of heaviness or fussiness that we often find in small suburban houses. One way of overcoming it is to vary the roof overhang so that a simpler roof shape may cover a more complicated plan shape. Another is to simplify the plan itself.

The skillion or single-pitch roof has an undeserved bad reputation. Some call it a lean-to and associate it with cow sheds and fowl houses. It can be a very pleasing and particularly economic shape for a small house that presents few problems of construction and waterproofing. Its application makes it possible to get extra height into big living rooms and use lower ceiling heights, say, for a small bathroom, an advantage, however, that cannot always be realised where a minimum ceiling height of nine feet is prescribed. The skillion roof allows for additional ventilation of rooms or the roof space but shading of windows through roof overhangs may become a problem.

The butterfly roof has now become well known in Australia. The two roof surfaces are inclined inwards so that the lowest line, the gutter, runs across the centre of the house. Although we might not advocate its adoption indiscriminately, it is very useful where additional light or ventilation is needed in the centre of a house. Since all rainwater runs towards the centre, care must be taken in waterproofing the butterfly roof.

These are the main roof shapes that we find on small houses today. Others, like the mansard roof, are no longer much used.

Roof construction may be in either timber, steel or concrete and a variety of covering materials are available.

Traditional timber construction employs a number of straight timbers, such as rafters, purlins, struts, hips, hangers, etc. which are housed into each other and nailed together. Most hoses in Australia are roofed in this manner and building regulations prescribe minimum sizes for these timbers. This construction has been developed over many years and is certainly strong enough if not particularly economic.

In a number of prefabricated houses, engineering principles are applied to roof construction and a timber roof truss is used that is designed properly for the stresses that occur. This construction is far more economical both in the use of timber and labour but cannot, at present, be employed by the individual homeowner.

Steel construction is rarely applied in house building in Australia though light steel trusses are sometimes used and could be used more often.

Reinforced concrete is commonly used for flat roof construction where the roof is intended as a deck, although it must not be forgotten that a flat roof can be constructed economically in timber.

A concrete slab is usually about four or five inches thick and reinforced with steel rods. It must be calculated by an engineer. A number of layers have to be added to make the roof complete.

One for grading (to drain off the rainwater), one for insulation (a function that the roof space fulfills in the pitched roof), and a surface to be walked on. Only if designed properly to solve all these problems will the flat roof give complete satisfaction. But then it will not be a cheap construction.

For covering the roof Marseilles patterned tiles are available in various red, tan and brown shades and also green and blue and may be glazed, semi or unglazed, the glossier tile being more waterproof. Tiles are wired to roof battens and their interlocking sides and heads ensure waterproofness when the pitch is no less than about 26°. Tiles may be used at a lower pitch down to 21° (and even as low as 15° has been used without trouble), but sarking must be used underneath, i.e., a layer of (bituminous) felt which forms a barrier to watever water may penetrate the tile joints. These joints, incidentally, ensure a certain amount of ventilation in the tiled roof which is important.

Concrete tiles are made to a similar size and pattern as clay tiles, but are somewhat heavier. There is a very large colour range in them.

Shingle tile or slates are rarely used here.

Sheet coverings include asbestos cement, corrugated steel sheets, aluminum, metal, and also copper and lead.

Steel sheets make a light roof which is important where transport is involved and they allow for light roof framing. Minimum pitch is about 1 in 12, but 1 in 16 or about 10° is a more recommendable minimum. The main point is that you must paint this roof regularly.

At least one firm is producing a metal tile. Multiple tiles (7 in one roof) are pressed out and (are) stove enameled.

Aluminum may also be used as corrugated sheeting. The aluminum tile is also a sheet with tile shapes pressed out and available in a number of attractive colours. The recommended minimum pitch is 21°.

Asbestos cement roofing which is made in two sizes of corrugations, standard and super six, can be used for comparatively low pitch. Where extremely low bitches are required, seal the end laps with bitumen.

In addition, tiles and sheet materials membranes are available. They are usually bituminous felts, supplied in 1, 2 or 3-ply thickness and laid in bituminous compounds. This work is done by specialist firms which give several years guarantee, but upkeep is always a factor with bituminous felt roofs. Although used also on low-pitched roofs its main use is on flat timber roofs where it is laid on tongued and grooved boarding, and covered with gravy or similar material to protect the bitumen from the sun. Felt is also used as a waterproof membrane on concrete roofs and covered with sand, tiles, etc.

Construction details. Leakages in roofs rarely occur in the main area but usually where a roof adjoins a vertical surface such as a parapet or a chimney. It is therefore extremely important to protect these danger points with metal flashings which divert water that might otherwise penetrate the joint.

For habitable rooms in the roof, where windows in the gable walls are not possible, dormers are used. They have a certain picturesque charm but add waterproofing and construction problems to the cost.

Gutters whose function is to collect rainwater and divert it to downpipes can be either in metal or asbestos cement and fixed to the fascia board (eaves gutter) or boxed in wood, lined with metal and situated anywhere in the roof. The latter presents more dangers since gutters have a tendency to be blocked by leaves, etc.

The roof is exposed to a great deal of cold and particularly heat and, therefore, insulation must be provided. Its simplest and frequently sufficient form is the well insulated roof space. The roof space may be ventilated through the tiles themselves, through open lining under the soffits, through openings in the gable walls, through specially manufactured ridge ventilators, according to the severity of conditions. This ventilation is also desirable for protection of roof timbers. Insulation can further be provided in the form of mineral wool batts or blankets either directly over the ceiling, the joists, or under the roof skin. Other insulation materials are also available, among them metal-foil building paper which reflects the heat of the sun.

What You Should Know About White Ants

White ants attack buildings in all Australian Stats. Prevention is cheaper, and more effective than cure. The termites attack structural timber from underground nests via foraging galleries ((Earthen) shelter tubes) which they build over brickwork, concrete, durable or creosoted wooden house-stumps, etc., to make contact with more suitable food material, perhaps many feet above ground.

A turned-down sheet of metal prevents termites building their galleries from a stump or wall onto structural timber.

Buildings of concrete, brick, brick veneer or timber should be fitted with shields or caps made of 24 or 26 gauge galvanised iron or copper the outer 2 inches of which should be turned down at an angle of 45°. The metal should project at least ½” before turning down. Where (a) strip shields (the) joint at wall junctions, joints should be soldered with a lap of at least 1”. Galvanised iron shields should be laid on a damp-proof course. Sheet copper can serve both as (an) ant-capping and damp-proof course.

Debris, mortar, or timber should not be left under a building to provide access over the metal shield to the timbers above. Ventilation and air circulation under all floors is essential; a minimum ground clearance of 18” is desirable. Drainage should be efficient, as moisture attracts termites.

Fitting Termite Shields and Caps

Walls– to prevent corrosion, shields are placed directly on the damp-proof course. The plate or bearer and brickwork are laid on the shield, and, in order to prevent sliding, the top surface is given a thin layer of tar and sand or bituminous paint. Do not damage (the) cap while fixing, or perforate it with nail holes.

Brick and Concrete Piers– Place caps on the damp-proof course of brick piers, then rest the bearers on them. If holding-down is needed, a ½” bolt may be cast into the concrete pier, the caps perforated, slipped over the bolts and bedded on cement mortar or tar and pitch mixed to a heavy consistency to seal caps and bolt-holes.

Wooden Stumps– If caps are nailed on, all nail heads must be soldered over. Where holding-down is required, do not spike nail bearers, as this perforates the caps. Instead use a bent bolt coach-screwed to the stump.

Fireplaces, Porches, Terraces– Shields should be inserted above (a) damp-proof course in brickwork, or bonded into concrete. Joins with shields from adjoining walls should be soldered with a 1” lap. In wooden buildings, where (the) fireplaces, etc., are isolated, shields must be fitted all round.

External Walls– Shield is laid on (a) damp-proof course and projects and turns down on inside face only.

Mortar– All mortar below shield level should consist of 1 part cement, 1 part lime and 6 parts sand, as termites can penetrate poor quality mortar and gain access to structural timber via the cavity.

Weep Holes– The cavity should be concrete-filled up to damp-proof course and shield level, and weep holes positioned in the first course of bricks above the shield. Weep holes below the shield allow termites to enter the cavity and use it as access to timber.

Internal Walls– A shield 5” wider than the wall is laid on the damp-proof course and projected at least ½” horizontally with a turn down of 2” at 45° on both sides of (the) wall. Where walls meet, T-junction shields with mitred joints should be used.

Concrete Floors– A continuous concrete course at least 3” thick, projecting 3” both inside and outside the walls, should be laid on the foundation walls. Slope the course on the outside to allow for rainwater run-off. Concrete floors should be butted to this course, the junction and all expansion joints poisoned with creosote oil at the rate of 1 gallon to 100 feet of joint. All structural timber should rest ON the floor — none should pass through it.

Termite Access Points– Fireplaces, porches, steps, terraces and projecting weatherboards often provide white ants with routes to food timber. All must be fitted with shields or isolated by a gap of approximately 2” from the rest of the building. Wooden steps may be placed on capped piers or stumps. Weatherboards should not be carried down closer than 2” above soil level, and care should be taken to clear away debris which might come to rest against them and provide termites with access routes. Provision should be made to inspect stumps and piers under houses at least once a year, more often in badly infested areas such as Queensland.

Termite-Resistant Timbers– A number of the denser eucalypts: ironbarks, river and forest red gums, most boxes, wandoo, jarrah, ironwood, tallow-wood, bloodwood and turpentine, are considerably resistant to termite attack. These timbers should be used for stumps and for other unprotected woodwork in contact with the ground. In northern areas, where the termite species “mastotermes” is prevalent, cypress pine should be used. This timber has outstanding resistance to this termite. Most light-coloured and lightweight hardwood timber, and most softwoods, have little resistance to termites.

Creosote Brushing and Dipping– Superficial coatings of this oil do not give permanent protection.

Drainage Pipes and Conduits– These are often used by termites as access routes. Where they are situated under the floor, and in contact with the ground, they should be fitted with special metal shields. Pipes driven (into) the ground for earthing radios, etc., should be positioned at least 3” from the wall.

What You Should Know About Home Lighting

It is only in the last few decades that artificial illumination was studied scientifically. Although this study was directed towards industry and schools rather than the home and although it is still by no means conclusive, yet there is enough knowledge now to apply to our homes the best that industry has to offer.

When planning the various light sources and fittings we must consider three questions:

1. The Kind of Light

There are many possibilities such as direct light with sharp contrasts and deep shadows; soft and diffused light; light reflected from the ceiling thus providing overall illumination with very little shadow; directional light by such devices as louvres or prismatic lenses; localised light of which a particularly good example is the Illuminating Engineering Society’s Better Light– Better Sight lamp which is generally recommended by lighting authorities. Then there is colour light to be considered and, although one should be wary of introducing coloured incandescent light, one of the available colours (from peach to daylight) must be chosen for fluorescent light and should be considered together with the colour scheme of the room.

2. The Amount of Light

Our eye is a remarkable instrument which is quite capable of adjusting itself to brightness which may vary from 1,000,000 (for white areas in direct sunlight) to 1. It is therefore unlikely that for normal healthy people you will get too much light. It is, however, quite possible to get brightness contrasts of such intensity as to be harmful (glare). The amount of light is reduced by any decorative fitting, the reduction depending on the density of the material used for shades. It is also reduced at the rate of the square of the distance, in other words: by coming three feet closer to a light source your brightness will increase nine times.

3. The Position of the Light

This should be self-evident when consideration has been given to elimination of glare and to the seeing task involved.

One particularly hard rooted idea is to have a centre fitting under all circumstances. Although centre fittings are comparatively cheap to install and have their uses in certain positions they are not usually the best solution of a lighting problem in living rooms. Besides there is still a shortage of well-designed ceiling fittings on the Australian market and concealed fittings or mobile lamps frequently are the better answer.

To give more specific solutions to lighting problems we are showing the plan of an average suburban cottage and discussing its various lighting questions.

1. Outside

This part of home lighting is often neglected. Outside lighting for safety is a matter of course. Illumination of house numbers would frequently be of great help and external lighting is a deterrent for burglars. In addition many outdoor activities could be continued after dark such as garden work.

A particularly interesting application of light is the illumination of trees, flowers, pools and shrubs in the garden which take on an entirely new interest at night.

2. Living Room

Diffused overall light can be provided by means of indirect lighting reflected from the ceiling, by fluorescent tubes concealed in the pelmet boards or above fitments. The main requirement in the living room is flexibility. Have enough sources of light in correct positions to provide various effects to suit different activities. When listening to music or for quiet conversation the lights should be subdued, avoid overhead lights which shine in your eyes when leaning back in a lounge chair. When playing cards have the light directly over the table. For parties have good general illumination together with localised effects. Close work such as reading, writing, sewing is the most important lighting problem and the one most easy to solve. Together with localised light that illuminates the work you should always use subdued background lighting. The eyes become tired and strained if there is too much contrast between the well-lit work and the room in general. There are lamps available which provide just that general background illumination together with localised direct light.

3. Dining

Dining is often a further function of the living room. Lights should concentrate attention on the dining table. A ceiling fitting over the table can be used, or a standard lamp next to it or a recessed light in the ceiling will give you spotlight on the table together with subdued light for the rest of the room.

4. Kitchen

The kitchen is a work room and the aim must be to provide a high level of general illumination together with localised lighting over working areas such as the sink, stove and work counter. In addition it is desirable to put light inside cupboards, ovens and refrigerators with plunger switches so that light is switched off and on automatically when doors are operated. This principle could well be extended to cupboards which are too deep to be seen clearly.

5. Bedrooms

Bedrooms need good general illumination though the level need not be as high as in other rooms. Particular care must be taken that lights do not shine in your eyes when lying down. For the dressing table mirror it is essential to have light from two directions directed on the face or figure, either from both sides or from above and below, thus avoiding shadows. Two individual adjustable reading lamps should be provided for a double bedroom. When a bedroom is used as a study or sewing room the same conditions apply as in a living room.

6. Bathrooms

A small room with reflective surfaces the bathroom usually gets a sufficient quantity of light, but not always the right kind. As mentioned for the dressing table, light at the shaving mirror should come from two directions.

7. Utility, Laundry, Garage

Too often there is a tendency to be skimpy with these rooms. They are work rooms and need adequate light for the work to be performed even if it is not performed every day. Fluorescent is particularly suited for (the) work bench. Fittings in halls and staircases should be planned to prevent accidents (avoid glare and contrasts) and so that light shines into hall cupboards, linen press(es), etc. Where this is not possible plunger switches should be fitted.

8. Special Decorative Effects

This is a possibility for home decoration which is often neglected and which leaves wide scope for imagination. Tubes concealed behind pelmet can highlight interesting curtain materials. Murals and pictures can be featured by spotlighting. Niches and recesses in walls or china display cabinets can be lighted inside.

Generally it pays to have an adequate number of light points installed. They do not cost very much when installed during construction and will not only safeguard your health and make your home pleasant but leave you prepared for any further development that the future may bring. When you employ fluorescent light remember that though dearer to install it is much more economic to use except in positions where light is frequently turned on and off.

Your electricity bills will not be any higher by using a great number of lights where you actually need them, because these lights will be turned off when not required for a specific visual task. You may feel you cannot afford a complete light installation desirable though it may be. The fact is you cannot afford to be without it.